Подзаголовок
13 Dysfunctional Families and Problem Kids
1. "Maternal impressions,” 1996, p. 1466 (originally published in 1896).
2. Guisewite, 1994.
3. Pitts, 1997, p. 23.
4. Grilo & Pogue-Geile, 1991; Keskitalo et al., 2008.
5. Lykken, McGue, Tellegen, & Bouchard, 1992.
6. Lykken et al., 1992; L. Wright, 1995. Amy and Beth are not their real
names.
7. Dickens, 1990 (originally published in 1838).
8. Lykken, 1995; Mealey, 1995; Rutter, 1997.
9. Patterson & Bank, 1989.
10. Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994.
11. Hartshorne & May, 1928.
12. My description of Oliver’s personality is based on the book; I’ve never
seen the show or any of the movies. Dickens said Oliver was "a child of a noble
nature and a warm heart” (1990, p. 314). He described the boy "shaking from head
to foot at the mere recollection of Mr. Bumbles voice” (p. 35).
13. Mednick, Gabrielli, & Hutchings, 1987.
14. Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990.
15. Rowe, Rodgers, & Meseck-Bushey, 1992; Rowe & Waldman, 1993; Rutter, 1997.
16. Moffitt, 1993.
17. Murphy, 1976, cited in Lykken, 1995.
18. Buss, 1994, pp. 49-50.
19. McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994, pp. 1,3. (Italics in the original.)
20. McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994. They controlled for racial and social class
differences. Frequent father contact: p. 98. (Italics in the original.)
21. McLanahan, 1994, p. 51; Krantz, 1989.
22. Crossette, 1996; McLanahan & Booth, 1989.
23. Adler, Kless, & Adler, 1992. If the financial deprivation were severe
enough to make it difficult for the children to get enough to eat, it could
jeopardize their growth, vitality, and even intelligence. However, this degree
of deprivation doesn’t appear to be common today in the United States or other
developed nations. On the contrary, at lower socioeconomic levels, children are
more likely to be overweight (Shrewsbury & Wardle, 2008).
24. Ambert, 1997, pp. 97-98.
25. Zimmerman, Salem, & Maton, 1995, p. 1607.
26. The same result—kids who live with both parents are no better off than
those who live with one parent—has been found by Chan, Raboy, & Patterson, 1998,
within an economically advantaged group.
27. McLanahan & Sandefiir, 1994.
28. Rejection by peers: Vernberg, 1990. Behavioral problems: Wood, Halfon,
Scarlata, Newacheck, & Nessim, 1993. Academic problems: Eckenrode, Rowe, Laird,
& Brath-waite, 1995.
29. Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980; Wallerstein & Blakeslee, 1989.
30. Santrock & Tracy 1978.
31. Chase-Lansdale, Cherlin, & Kiernan, 1995, pp. 1618-1619.
32. McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994, p. 3.
33. McGue & Lykken, 1992.
34. McGue & Lykken, 1992. The subjects in this study ranged in age from
thirty-four to fifty-three years.
35. Jockin, McGue, & Lykken, 1996. They concluded, "Thus, personality
predicts divorce risk, and more specifically, it does so largely because of the
genetic rather than the environmental influences they share” (p. 296).
36. Antisocial personality disorder can be inherited: Caspi, 1998; Gottesman,
Goldsmith, & Carey 1997. The Danish adoption study of criminal behavior (Mednick
et al., 1987) indicated that men with antisocial tendencies are more likely to
father children they are unwilling or unable to rear. For genetic reasons, the
offspring of such men are more likely to have antisocial tendencies. Taken
together, these observations can explain why fatherless boys are more likely to
commit crimes (see Popenoe, 1996).
37. Troublesome behavior precedes the divorce: Block, Block, & Gjerde, 1986.
Divorce, antisocial personality, and conduct disorder: Lahey, Hartdagen, Frick,
McBurnett, Connor, & Hynd, 1988.
38. Glick, 1988.
39. D. G. Myers, personal communication, February 2, 1998.
40. Daly & Wilson, 1996.
41. Новая, улучшенная версия моей теории (Harris, 2006)
приписывает работу по огранке личности третьему отделу мозга. Но то, что я
говорила здесь об отделе взаимоотношений не изменилось.
42. Pinker, 1997.
43. Kagan, 1994. See my comments on Hetherington &C Clingempeel, 1992, in
Note 46, Chapter 4.
44. As mentioned previously, divorce can also affect the child’s life outside
the home, if it entails a change of residence (or shuttling between two
residences). But the behavioral genetic evidence suggests that these disruptions
have few, if any long-term effects, once genetic influences on personality are
taken into account.
45. Straus, Sugarman, & Giles-Sims, 1997.
46. There’s a hilarious parody of middle-class European-American
child-rearing methods in the novel Bellwether, by Connie Willis (1996).
47. Gilbert, 1997.
48. Coulton, Korbin, Su, & Chow, 1995; Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit,
1996; Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994b; Kelley & Tseng, 1992; Knight, Virdin, &
Roosa, 1994.
49 Chao, 1994, Table 1.
50. Straus et al., 1997, p. 761.
51. Picked up by the AP: Coleman, 1997. Summary in JAMA: November 12, 1997,
vol. 278, p. 1470.
52. Gunnoe & Mariner, 1997, p. 768.
53. Abused kids more aggressive: Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990;
Malinowsky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993. Trouble with friendship: Dodge, Pettit, &
Bates, 1994a. Trouble with schoolwork: Perez & Widom, 1994. Abuse their own
children: Wolfe, 1985.
54. An exception is Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994, who discussed both genetic
effects and child-to-parent effects in their review of parental child-rearing
methods.
55. Ten years later, it is no longer uncommon for socialization researchers
to admit that heredity, as well as child-to-parent effects, might play a role in
the correlations they find between parental behavior and child behavior. However,
they still have not come to grips with the ambiguity of their data. The fact
that they have no way of knowing whether these correlations are due to heredity,
child-to-parent effects, or parent-to-child effects cannot be used to support
the view that all three must be involved. Other evidence suggests that the
correlations are due entirely to heredity and child-to-parent effects, and that
parent-to-child effects are zero. See Harris, 1998, 2000c.
56. Plomin, Owen, & McGuffin, 1994.
57. Vasta, 1982.
58. Ladd, 1992.
59. Ambert, 1994a, p. 121; 1997, p. 99. The percentages given are from the
most recent batch of autobiographies analyzed, collected in 1989. See also
Kochenderfer Sc Ladd, 1996.
60. Eckenrode et al., 1995.
61. Reasonable control: Smolowe, 1996. Chained to the radiator: Gibbs, 1991.
62. This statement had no endnote in the first edition because I had no real
evidence to back it up. Now I do: Stattin & Kerr, 2000.
63. Myers, 1982.
64. Baumrind, 1967.
65. Wagner, 1997, p. 291.
66. Pike, Reiss, Hetherington, & Plomin, 1996; Smetana, 1995.
67. Weiss & Schwarz, 1996. These researchers defined six parenting types;
offispring of "Authoritative” parents did not have significantly better
personalities or fewer problems. Offspring of "Unengaged” and "Authoritarian-Directive”
parents did score significandy lower but the differences were small.
68. Multiple intelligences: Gardner, 1983. Scores on different tests
correlated: D. Seligman, 1992.
69. Cohen, 1994, p. 1. Because some of the items did not yield numerical
responses, the researchers used chi-square tests in these cases, rather than
correlations. The work was done by Meehl and Lykken and reported by Cohen.
70. Parental bond: Foreman, 1997. Parent-family connectedness: Resnick et al.,
1997.
71. Carlson, 1997.
72. For the heritability of anger, see Rebollo Sc Boomsma, 2006.
73. Caspi et al., 1997.
74. Bradshaw, 1988; Forward, 1989.
75. For example, Dawes, 1994; M. Seligman, 1994.
76. Happiness, unhappiness, and memory: Myers, 1992; Dawes, 1994, pp.
211-216. Memories of identical twins: Hur & Bouchard, 1995. Genetic influences
on happiness: Lykken &Tellegen, 1996.