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13 Dysfunctional Families and Problem Kids
1.    "Maternal impressions,” 1996, p. 1466 (originally published in 1896).
2.    Guisewite, 1994.
3.    Pitts, 1997, p. 23.
4.    Grilo & Pogue-Geile, 1991; Keskitalo et al., 2008.
5.    Lykken, McGue, Tellegen, & Bouchard, 1992.
6.    Lykken et al., 1992; L. Wright, 1995. Amy and Beth are not their real names.
7.    Dickens, 1990 (originally published in 1838).
8.    Lykken, 1995; Mealey, 1995; Rutter, 1997.
9.    Patterson & Bank, 1989.
10.    Dishion, Duncan, Eddy, Fagot, & Fetrow, 1994.
11.    Hartshorne & May, 1928.
12.    My description of Oliver’s personality is based on the book; I’ve never seen the show or any of the movies. Dickens said Oliver was "a child of a noble nature and a warm heart” (1990, p. 314). He described the boy "shaking from head to foot at the mere recollection of Mr. Bumbles voice” (p. 35).
13.    Mednick, Gabrielli, & Hutchings, 1987.
14.    Gottfredson & Hirschi, 1990.
15.    Rowe, Rodgers, & Meseck-Bushey, 1992; Rowe & Waldman, 1993; Rutter, 1997.
16.    Moffitt, 1993.
17.    Murphy, 1976, cited in Lykken, 1995.
18.    Buss, 1994, pp. 49-50.
19.    McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994, pp. 1,3. (Italics in the original.)
20.    McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994. They controlled for racial and social class differences. Frequent father contact: p. 98. (Italics in the original.)
21.    McLanahan, 1994, p. 51; Krantz, 1989.
22.    Crossette, 1996; McLanahan & Booth, 1989.
23.    Adler, Kless, & Adler, 1992. If the financial deprivation were severe enough to make it difficult for the children to get enough to eat, it could jeopardize their growth, vitality, and even intelligence. However, this degree of deprivation doesn’t appear to be common today in the United States or other developed nations. On the contrary, at lower socioeconomic levels, children are more likely to be overweight (Shrewsbury & Wardle, 2008).
24.    Ambert, 1997, pp. 97-98.
25.    Zimmerman, Salem, & Maton, 1995, p. 1607.
26.    The same result—kids who live with both parents are no better off than those who live with one parent—has been found by Chan, Raboy, & Patterson, 1998, within an economically advantaged group.
27.    McLanahan & Sandefiir, 1994.
28.    Rejection by peers: Vernberg, 1990. Behavioral problems: Wood, Halfon, Scarlata, Newacheck, & Nessim, 1993. Academic problems: Eckenrode, Rowe, Laird, & Brath-waite, 1995.
29.    Wallerstein & Kelly, 1980; Wallerstein & Blakeslee, 1989.
30.    Santrock & Tracy 1978.
31.    Chase-Lansdale, Cherlin, & Kiernan, 1995, pp. 1618-1619.
32.    McLanahan & Sandefur, 1994, p. 3.
33.    McGue & Lykken, 1992.
34.    McGue & Lykken, 1992. The subjects in this study ranged in age from thirty-four to fifty-three years.
35.    Jockin, McGue, & Lykken, 1996. They concluded, "Thus, personality predicts divorce risk, and more specifically, it does so largely because of the genetic rather than the environmental influences they share” (p. 296).
36.    Antisocial personality disorder can be inherited: Caspi, 1998; Gottesman, Goldsmith, & Carey 1997. The Danish adoption study of criminal behavior (Mednick et al., 1987) indicated that men with antisocial tendencies are more likely to father children they are unwilling or unable to rear. For genetic reasons, the offspring of such men are more likely to have antisocial tendencies. Taken together, these observations can explain why fatherless boys are more likely to commit crimes (see Popenoe, 1996).
37.    Troublesome behavior precedes the divorce: Block, Block, & Gjerde, 1986. Divorce, antisocial personality, and conduct disorder: Lahey, Hartdagen, Frick, McBurnett, Connor, & Hynd, 1988.
38.    Glick, 1988.
39.    D. G. Myers, personal communication, February 2, 1998.
40.    Daly & Wilson, 1996.
41.    Новая, улучшенная версия моей теории (Harris, 2006) приписывает работу по огранке личности третьему отделу мозга. Но то, что я говорила здесь об отделе взаимоотношений не изменилось.
42.    Pinker, 1997.
43.    Kagan, 1994. See my comments on Hetherington &C Clingempeel, 1992, in Note 46, Chapter 4.
44.    As mentioned previously, divorce can also affect the child’s life outside the home, if it entails a change of residence (or shuttling between two residences). But the behavioral genetic evidence suggests that these disruptions have few, if any long-term effects, once genetic influences on personality are taken into account.
45.    Straus, Sugarman, & Giles-Sims, 1997.
46.    There’s a hilarious parody of middle-class European-American child-rearing methods in the novel Bellwether, by Connie Willis (1996).
47.    Gilbert, 1997.
48.    Coulton, Korbin, Su, & Chow, 1995; Deater-Deckard, Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1996; Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994b; Kelley & Tseng, 1992; Knight, Virdin, & Roosa, 1994.
49 Chao, 1994, Table 1.
50.    Straus et al., 1997, p. 761.
51.    Picked up by the AP: Coleman, 1997. Summary in JAMA: November 12, 1997, vol. 278, p. 1470.
52.    Gunnoe & Mariner, 1997, p. 768.
53.    Abused kids more aggressive: Dodge, Bates, & Pettit, 1990; Malinowsky-Rummell & Hansen, 1993. Trouble with friendship: Dodge, Pettit, & Bates, 1994a. Trouble with schoolwork: Perez & Widom, 1994. Abuse their own children: Wolfe, 1985.
54.    An exception is Rothbaum & Weisz, 1994, who discussed both genetic effects and child-to-parent effects in their review of parental child-rearing methods.
55.    Ten years later, it is no longer uncommon for socialization researchers to admit that heredity, as well as child-to-parent effects, might play a role in the correlations they find between parental behavior and child behavior. However, they still have not come to grips with the ambiguity of their data. The fact that they have no way of knowing whether these correlations are due to heredity, child-to-parent effects, or parent-to-child effects cannot be used to support the view that all three must be involved. Other evidence suggests that the correlations are due entirely to heredity and child-to-parent effects, and that parent-to-child effects are zero. See Harris, 1998, 2000c.
56.    Plomin, Owen, & McGuffin, 1994.
57.    Vasta, 1982.
58.    Ladd, 1992.
59.    Ambert, 1994a, p. 121; 1997, p. 99. The percentages given are from the most recent batch of autobiographies analyzed, collected in 1989. See also Kochenderfer Sc Ladd, 1996.
60.    Eckenrode et al., 1995.
61.    Reasonable control: Smolowe, 1996. Chained to the radiator: Gibbs, 1991.
62.    This statement had no endnote in the first edition because I had no real evidence to back it up. Now I do: Stattin & Kerr, 2000.
63.    Myers, 1982.
64.    Baumrind, 1967.
65.    Wagner, 1997, p. 291.
66.    Pike, Reiss, Hetherington, & Plomin, 1996; Smetana, 1995.
67.    Weiss & Schwarz, 1996. These researchers defined six parenting types; offispring of "Authoritative” parents did not have significantly better personalities or fewer problems. Offspring of "Unengaged” and "Authoritarian-Directive” parents did score significandy lower but the differences were small.
68.    Multiple intelligences: Gardner, 1983. Scores on different tests correlated: D. Seligman, 1992.
69.    Cohen, 1994, p. 1. Because some of the items did not yield numerical responses, the researchers used chi-square tests in these cases, rather than correlations. The work was done by Meehl and Lykken and reported by Cohen.
70.    Parental bond: Foreman, 1997. Parent-family connectedness: Resnick et al., 1997.
71.    Carlson, 1997.
72.    For the heritability of anger, see Rebollo Sc Boomsma, 2006.
73.    Caspi et al., 1997.
74.    Bradshaw, 1988; Forward, 1989.
75.    For example, Dawes, 1994; M. Seligman, 1994.
76.    Happiness, unhappiness, and memory: Myers, 1992; Dawes, 1994, pp. 211-216. Memories of identical twins: Hur & Bouchard, 1995. Genetic influences on happiness: Lykken &Tellegen, 1996.